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Rhetoric as a connection
of text - and hypertext system.
The word rhetoric
is a derivation from the Greek expression ρητορικη
τεχνη which meant a scientific discipline and
theory for talk. So rhetoric in this early meaning in ancient literature is
an art with theoretical background of practical speech (rhetorica utens et docens) and several rules. Basis for s speech is
the materia which can be structured as words (verba) of a speech to illustrate things (res). This basic idea of understanding the connection between sign
systems, text systems and their interpretation in words as well as the ancient
theory of genders are still usefull as a theory for communication processes
in modern media communication like email.
Both traditional and internet based speech and literature refere to
genders which are theoretically analysed in rhetorix and literary science.
According to these models this paper forcusses on genders of hypertext literature
to build a schema of textual configuration
of media. Diane Greco writes about hypertexts: „Thus hypertext arguably provides a material
instantiation of what had been previously only ephemeral analysis, an artifact
rather than an academic theory divorced from the material and social conditions
of textual production.“
[1]
Rhetoric in media communication is in spite
of the fact that artifical languages are used for the realisation of communication
necessary as well for the programming and the application of the user.
[2]
Let´s
have a look to the ancient rhetoric system. According to Aristoteles the genera are deliberative, forensic and epideictic.
[3]
Cicero tells in Orator
to Brutus (VI, 20) ´Tria sunt omnino genera dicendi´.
[4]
The syntagmatic parts of a speech are inventio,
dispositio, elocutio, memoria und pronuntiatio. In De Inventione (I, 9) Cicero makes definitions of the parts of rhetoric
basing on materia:
„Quare materia quidem nobis rhetoricae videtur
artis ea, quam Aristoteli visam esse diximus; partes autem eae, quas plerique
dixerunt, inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, pronuntiatio.
I n v e n t i o
est excogitatio rerum verarum aut veri similium, quae causam probabilem
reddant;
d i s p o s i t i o est rerum inventarum in ordinem distributio;
e l o c u t i o est idoneorum verborum [et sententiarum]
ad inventionem accommodatio;
m e m o r i a
est firma animi rerum ac verborum ad inventionem perceptio;
p r o n u n t i a t i o est ex rerum et verborum dignitate vocis et
corporis moderatio.“
In
the disposition (dispositio) the material (materia) is parted in a scheme of parts: In the exordium
(introduction), narration (narratio) and its short description (propositio) or argumentation (argumentatio), the improvement of the described
occurence (probatio) and the defence
of objections (refugatio) and the
ending of the speech (peroratio)
the theme of the speech is discussed. The
propositio is the statement of the
theme or view to be maintained, and often containes a partitio or division
of the proposition. Aristoles introduced the idea o three parts of a speech.
The arrangement of the dispositio
is the structure of a speech. Following Aristotle a speech should have the
three parts beginning, middle, and end. The dispositio
is the arrangement in strategic order. In the dispositio the material is ordered. Dispositio means arrangement of ideas. Following Quintilian (III,
3) the dispositio is necessary for
a long speech: „Ac si est brevis et
una conclusione finitus, nihil fortasse ultra desideret: at oratio longior
plura exigit. Non enim tantum refert quid et quo modo dicamus, sed etiam quo
loco: opus ergo est et dispositione.“
Gellius
mentiones in Attic Nights (Book
VI) the three genders of speech:
„XIV. De tribus dicendi generibus; ac de tribus
philosophis, qui ab Atheniensibus ad senatum Romam legati sunt. 1 Et in carmine
et in soluta oratione genera dicendi probabilia sunt tria, quae Graeci charakteras
vocant nominaque eis fecerunt hadron, ischnon, meson. 2 Nos quoque, quem primum
posuimus, "uberem" vocamus, secundum "gracilem", tertium
"mediocrem". 3 Vberi dignitas atque amplitudo est, gracili venustas
et subtilitas, medius in confinio est utriusque modi particeps. 4 His singulis
orationis virtutibus vitia agnata sunt pari numero, quae earum modum et habitum
simulacris falsis ementiuntur. 5 Sic plerumque sufflati atque tumidi fallunt
pro uberibus, squalentes et ieiunidici pro gracilibus, incerti et ambigui
pro mediocribus.“
[5]
We
find as well a discipline of the three styles (low style, medium style and
high style) as the discipline of the three
genera. The brevitas is one ofe the stylistic ideas of rhetoric speech. Ancient
rhetoric knows three kinds of speech: genus
iudiciale for an occurence in the courtyard, genus deliberativum for political
speech of a subject in future times, and the genus demonstrativum for happenings in present time. So in the first
case the aim is to defend or to accuse a person, in the second case the persuasion
of an convention and in the third case persons judging about arts. Memoria
in the older theory is a part of the production of speech. Ancient rhetoric
literature used this as one of the officia
oratoris for the memory of the things (res)
mentioned in the speech. The memory is the part which is necessary for remembering
a speech which is held after the works of the invention, disposition and pronunctation.
For a sytematic use of memory a topic construction is useful. Things that
shall be remembered are organised in a ´virtual´ form with abstracts to which
they are belonging to for example by meaning, by tradition or by a gender
systeme.
The action (actio) is the part which is the demonstration of the speech in front
of an audiance. Ethic value of the orator is a fact
necessary for the successful speech. Traditionally since Seneca the artes
liberales represent the arts a free man is allowed to practise. The trivium´s
arts grammar, dialectic and rhetoric are the basis for literary work. In Aristoteles´
philosophy rhetoric is only the art of making meanings in opposite to philosophy´s
interest in finding truth. Persuasion is the aim of rhetoric ans dialectic
speech in front on an audience of one person or a group of people. There is
not only a persuasion based on the good speech. Ancient Roman rhetoric mentions
the inner and outer property of a speech (aptum) according to the harmonic construction
of the parts of a speech and the situation in which a person talks to the
audience. Ethic competence is one topic for the person talking in front of
an audience. The idea of an ars bene dicendi includes both the technical instructions
and the ethic authority. Even the good knowledge of other arts is a basis
for a qualification of an orator.
Janice R. Walker mentiones
in Reinventing Rhetoric: The Classical
Canon in the Computer that the five parts of rhetoric need an adaption
for 20th century media:
“The five parts of the classical canon--Invention, Arrangement, Memory,
Delivery, and Style--have been subjects of debate throughout the history of
rhetoric, as we moved from an oral “technology" to a written one, and
from a written to a print one. […] Now, as we again begin learning to write
in a new medium, passing on the torch from orality to literacy to "computeracy"
(or post-literacy, or to whatever we may ultimately be headed for), we must
reconsider our definitions of rhetoric and look at how we will extend these
terms to the new medium of electronic "writing." […] The five parts
of the classical canon--Invention, Arrangement, Memory, Delivery, and Style--are
one way we might begin thinking about how to apply rhetorical concepts to
writing in the twenty-first century and beyond. After all, literacy has undergone
many changes in the past--from orality, to writing, to print--and it will
likely undergo many more, in ways we cannot even now imagine. The shift to
the paperless classroom will not happen overnight, of course, but whether
we like it or not, we need to think about how computers and computer writing
will impact the future of rhetoric, of composition and composition classes,
and of literacy itself.”
[6]
In
The Rhetoric of Hypertext is mentioned
by George L. Dillon: „Few authors have
considered the need for an extended rhetoric in hyperspace. The question here
is how hyperbook authors will use the new structural components at their disposal
to create an effective presentation. Landow's "The Rhetoric of Hypermedia"
stands as a formative article.“
[7]
Christopher Keep, Tim McLaughlin and Robin Parmar write
about rhetoric in hyperspace:„Few authors have considered the need for an
extended rhetoric in hyperspace. The question here is how hyperbook authors
will use the new structural components at their disposal to create an effective
presentation.“
[8]
The first rhetoric rules for successful communication were
made in 4th century by Korax and Tisias. For the forensic speeches
in front of a court these rules were necessary for the own defead. Because
of the oral use the ancient theorie was made for spoken words. But also theoretically
aspects of written word we find in Greek language. The classical trias of
speech genres are genus iudicale for law affairs, genus demonstrativum for public affairs
and the genus laudativum for the
arts. In Greece sophists started in Athens and other cities during second
part of 4th century to
teach rhetoric. Rhetoric was one of their subjects as well as laws, politics,
grammar, logic, ethics and literature criticism. Sokrates was considered by
contemporary persons as a sophist. Socrates and his scholars were interested
in rhetorics. Gorgias was one of the sophists with which Socrates had a dialogue
entitled Gorgias. Sophistic knowlegde
is there interpreted as pseudo-knowledge responsable for meanings without
reasons. In his dialogue Phaedrus
there is the rhetoric a theme. Speeches of Demothenes were examples for classic
prosa style and classic composition. As one of the most important discourses
of ancient European times is a text from the Lyceum written by Aristoteles.
Aristoteles established rhetoric in front of poetic and behind politics and
oeconomy. Epicur and his scholars also used criticism. Rhetorik was taught
in all Greek cities during Hellenism. A strong influence on rhetoric was the
Aristotelian model. Aristotle described a number of topoi, or topics, for
discovering ideas and the search for arguments. These topics for a way of
analyzing, evaluating, and extending virtually any subject (res) constitute
a heuristic method of systematic inquiry .
[9]
Marion
Walton mentiones for writing for the web a Hypertext
rhetoric:
„Hypertext makes new demands on both readers
and writers. Although individual 'blocks' of text in hypertext can be read
in a linear fashion, hypertext should be written to facilitate non-linear
navigation. While you should certainly be writing journalistic style introductory
paragraphs and designing tables of contents or overview pages, you should
never assume that readers have encountered these pages. Rather than relying
on the usual (linear) textual rhetorical markers of sequence, the design of
your site should assist navigation and development of coherence by clearly
indicating:
1.
The purpose, main sections and subsections of the site;
2.
The current location of the reader in the site.
Web constraints and possibilities
The web offers unique constraints and possibilities
to writers. The major constraint for web writing is the somewhat fickle scanning
behaviour of most web readers. A major possibility of the web as medium is
the vast universe of discourse which is potentially related to your hypertext
through linking.“
[10]
Also
Alysson Troffer focusses on the special rhetoric of internet textes in her
thesis Writing Effectively Online: How
to Compose Hypertext with her demand „Hypertext
Requires Its Own Rhetoric“: „Many
have argued that hypertext is a communication medium that requires its own
rhetoric. According to Karen Schriver (1997), the conventions of such a rhetoric
are currently under construction. As a result, document designers are "groping
through the design space and inventing as we go".
[11]
Traditional ideals of ancient rhetoric´s vir bonus finds
an equivalent in modern universities´ conception of the use of internet resourses.
So the University of South Australia mentiones for its Electronic newsgroup COMMA that a certain netiquete is necessary für
the participating person:
„Remember that all staff and students have access
to these messages. Do not use COMMA to carry on private conversations, and
please exercise the usual standards of 'netiquette' you would use with all
e-mailing: that is, adopt a cool, calm, professional approach, with no personal
attacks or comments, and nothing else you may be ashamed of in future for
having posted. Electronic submission of assignments. This web site has a function
which allows you to send assignments electronically, as a form of e-mail.
Work submitted via the web site will not automatically go to your tutor, but
to the site coordinator. Also, most formatting is lost in assignments submitted
this way, as the function is not based on word-processing software. Thus an
assignment may be too large or too heavily formatted to be suitable for electronic
submission.“
[12]
Gideon O. Burton notices about the internet use of rhetoric:
„The world wide web provides a unique environment
for discovering, organizing, teaching, and publishing academic information.
These conventionally separated activities can be pursued simultaneously on
a website due to the flexibility of this nascent medium, creating both opportunities
and pitfalls. This paper relates the account of one scholar/teacher/webmaster's
experience in developing an academic website devoted to the history and terminology
of rhetoric, Silva Rhetoricae: The Forest of Rhetoric.“
[13]
Rhetoric
is the art of good talking, ars bene
dicendi, in ancient times. The terminology of rhetoric is based on the
ancient greek words which were added and translated into Latin vocabulary.
This rhetoric vocabulay was used till 18th century. The syntagmatic parts are inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria und pronuntiatio. The invention
of the speech is the first part of a speech. In this invention the first ideas
are collected as topics. The invention (inventio)
is based on a topic methode of loci
a persona and loci a re. The
disposition of a speech is the part in which the order of the speech is made.
Rhetoric developes formulars for argumantative structures of arguments (topoi, loci) from the art dialectic art as examples for the disposition (taxis; dispositio) and expression (lexis;
elocutio).
[14]
Elements of the pre-theoretical ars oratoria are also inside
of the ancient Greek poerty. Sophistic scholars developed the systeme of rhetoric.
The Platonis school criticised as well sophistic as rhetoric scholarship.
Aristoteles analyses rhetoric as a phemenen which is a part of dialectic scholarship.
Peripatetic and stoic scholarship imploved rhetoric theory. In the disposition
(dispositio) the material (materia) is parted in a scheme of parts:
In the exordium (introduction),
narration (narratio) and its short
description (propositio) or argumentation
(argumentatio), the improvement
of the described occurence (probatio)
and the defence of objections (refugatio)
and the ending of the speech (peroratio)
the theme of the speech is discussed. The pronunctation of the speech is the
part in which the stilistic elements are organized. Rhetoric has tree parts
of style. Simple style, middle style and high style. Asianism was created
in Rhodos, the first manieristic style which was in opposition to Atticism.
For the history of rhetoric the transposition of the Greek terminology into
Latin by Cicero was very important. The Greek pathe
became affectus, ethe became mores. Basic
aims of rhetoric are moving (movere),
teaching (docere) and joy (delectare). Part of the elocutio are figures like word figures,
figures of sentences and thought figures, tropes like metonymia, synekdoche,
hyperbel and metaphora. They are parts of the decoration of a speech (ornatus).
[15]
Aristotle
mentiones in his Rhetoric (section
1391b) the different ends of kinds of speech:
„Now, since each kind of Rhetoric, as was said,
has its own special end, and in regard to all of them we have gathered popular
opinions and premises whence men derive their proofs in deliberative, epideictic,
and judicial speeches, and, further, we have determined the special rules
according to which it is possible to make our speeches ethical, it only remains
to discuss the topics common to the three kinds of rhetoric.“ Aristotle
mentiones also in his Nicomachean Ethics
(1181a, Book 10) the similarity between science and rhetoric: „In fact they are absolutely ignorant of the
very nature of the science and of the subjects with which it deals; otherwise
they would not class it as identical with, or even inferior to, the art of
rhetoric.“ Aristotle definies in his Rhetoric
(1355b) as the faculty of discovering
the possible means of persuasion in reference to any subject whatever.
Cicero takes Aristoteles as the authority for genders in De Inventione (I, 7) which can be changed into each other by the art
of the orator (oratoris ars) and
the faculty (facultas) in using
the material (materia). The genus iudicale is used for accusations,
defensions, petitions and recrusations:
„Aristoteles autem, qui huic arti plurima adiumenta
atque ornamenta subministravit, tribus in generibus rerum versari rhetoris
officium putavit, d e m o n s t r a t i v o, d e l i b e r a t i v o, i u
d i c i a l i. Demonstrativum est,
quod tribuitur in alicuius certae personae laudem aut vituperationem; deliberativum,
quod positum in disceptatione civili habet in se sententiae dictionem; iudiciale,
quod positum in iudicio habet in se accusationem et defensionem aut petitionem
et recusationem. Et, quemadmodum nostra
quidem fert opinio, oratoris ars et facultas in hac materia tripertita versari
existimanda est.“
Analyses
of a text was one of the methodes of rhetoric use. In the near east culture
rhetoric was a subject during Alexanders reign and the following reign of
diadochs. In Egypte the Alexandrian library was founded when the rhetor Demetrius
visited the city. In the late ancient times rhetoric was considered sine gusto
and artificial. In Asia this kind of rhetoric flourished in the first century
b. C. Only a few names and textes of this asianism are known. In 1. century b. C. atticism started as a classicistic
reaction on theory and pragmatism of rhetoric. Examples were attic rhetors
as well as Plato, Xenophon and Thukydides. Exemples od attic theory and literature
criticism are textes of Dyonysos of Halikarnass. In the first century so called
second sophistic phase started. This second phase was famous for epideictic
rhetoric of travelling rhetors, e. g. Dio of prusa, Aristides, Libanius. This
free art of rhetoric was based on intersive lessons of theory and examples.
Hermogenes composed some teaching books of new and old rhetoric textes. In
late ancient times political conditions put a stress on rhetorical pragmantism
and theory from court rhetoric and political speech to the genus laudativum.
A special theme were historical speech and the art of writing letters (ars
epistolaria). For poets there was a literature for poetic, which was influenced
by rhetoric and formed the style of later Greek poetics.
The
parts exordium, narratio, divisio, confirmatio, confutatio and conclusio
are elements of rhetoric introduced by the Rhetorica
ad Herennium. The paradigmatic parts are initium, narratio, argumentatio, refutatio and conclusio.
The beginning of the speech includes the greeting and talk to the audience.
After die formular of the auditorem benevolo the person holding the speech
introduces the audience into the theme af the speech. The narration is the
part of the speech in which the things that happened, the state of the affair
and the basic facts in a description. After the narration the argumantation
starts with arguments which are ordered after a topic system. Argumentation
(argumentatio) is one part of a speech and
also tge main instrument for the act of persuasion. The arguments (argumenti) are placed in a topos or locus. If one uses such loci
he has the ability to find the arguments for persuasive speech. This Topic
is one of the most efficient disciplines in rhetoric literature. The repeatition is the part where the most
important parts of the argumantation
are told again. The conclusion is the last part in which the talking person
makes a result of the argumentation.
The
vocabulary of latin rhetoric was influenced by Greek rhetoric. Greek rhetoric
came in second century to Rome when greek messengers held speches in front
of the senat. At the beginnung of the first century the Greek philosopher
Philo of Larissa and the orator Molo were in Rome where the young Cicero heard
them. Cicero used rhetoric in his political speeches and wrote textes about
rhetoric. Latin rhetoric based on the fact that Greek terms were translated
into Latin. His later rhetoric writings like De oratore, Brutus and Orator are no
teaching books for scholars but descritions of an orator as a personality
of science and knowledge. This ideal of a literary and philosophic orator
is later to be found in Roman literature of Quintilian and Tacitus.
In ancient times the pathetic style with an
affective discription of an impressive occurance and the etcic style for a
description of beautiful and delightful happenings are used for a speech.
Cicero promotes the idol o an orator
perfectus connecting rhetorical ability, knowledge and ethic faculties.
Quintilian is a teacher of rhetoric using also this ideal of ethic and pragmatic
dualism for an orator.
[16]
For Quintilian there are differences between the arts.
While all the other ancient arts have a limit (finis),
rhetoric has no end: „Et pictor, cum
vi artis suae efficit ut quaedam eminere in opere, quaedam recessisse credamus,
ipse ea plana esse non nescit. Aiunt etiam omnes artes habere finem aliquem
propositum ad quem tendant: hunc modo nullum esse in rhetorice, modo non praestari
eum qui promittatur.“
[17]
After the end of Roman Republic political climate changed.
Later commentaries of Cicero´s De inventione made by Marius Victorinus and
Grillius illustrate the importance of this work as a teaching book. Also the
ars epistolaria was composed in writings. Some rhetoric discourses of the
late periode started to draw attention to the letter as well as to speeches.
By the influence of the Christians a new object of rhtoric literature theory
and criticism became the bible. Christian scholars used the art of rhetoric.
The churchs´ fathers were the ideals for Christian rhetoric and literature
during 3th century. Up to 14th century this tradition of spiritual
and mundane speech. All over the latin speaking provinces of the Roman Empire
there were schools for rhetoric as an institution of higher education. Rhetoric
was a part of the seven free arts (septem artes liberales) in the trivium
of grammar, dialectic and rhetoric. According to the development of the Christians
the latin Christian writers had an grammatical and rhetorical education for
their studies in bible and Christian theologues´ preaching.
Therefor
the bible had to be translated from Greek into Latin. At the end of the Roman
Empire most political institutions und places for education were destructed
by Germanic and other invaders. Education was a gift to the monks in the monasteries.
In ancient times the discipline of the good speech was established in theory
of speeches. A systeme of the rhetorical elements of a speech was constructed.
Disciplines with rhetorical elements were the art of letter writing and literature
criticism. Influenced were historical stodies, popular philosophy and poetics.
Augustinus work De doctrina christiana
shows the importance of rhetoric for theological schools. The work Etymologiae of Isidor of Sevilla in the middle ages was used as a
encylopaedic information media. Alcuin introduced with his Disputatio de Rhetorica et Virtutibus the tradition of ancient literature.
A new partition between the parts of speech is made by Donatus in the 4th
century in his book Ars grammatica:
|
de
partibus orationis de
nomine de
pronomine de
verbo de
adverbio de
participio de
coniunctione de
praepositione de
interiectione de
barbarismo de
soloecismo de
ceteris vitiis de
metaplasmo de
schematibus de
tropis
|
de
partibus orationis ars minor de
nomine de
pronomine de
verbo de
adverbio de
participio de
coniunctione de
praepositione de
interiectione
[18]
|
Ancient
rhetoric was during the Middle Ages known by certain textes and theories.
Ancient knowledge was used in different areas, times and interests of scholars.
A new way of interpretation of the ancient textes started. After the 5th
cenury exspecially in Ireland and England classical studies were made. In
schools of west Europe we find teaching concepts of the ancient seven arts.
During aronic Renaissance in 7th
and 8th century a reformation of literature, an increasement of
libraries and school education started. Alcuin was one of the most important
scholars wrote about rhetoric and other liberal arts. Alcuin decribes in seinem
Werk De Disputatio de Rhetorica et de
virtutibus sapientissimi regis Karli et Albini Magistri Rhetoric at the
court of Karl the Great.
Qui rogo civiles cupiat cognoscere mores,
Haec praecepta legat, quae liber iste tenet.
Scripserat haec inter curas rex Karulus aulae
Albinusque simul: hic dedit, ille probat.
Unum opus amborum, dispar sed causa duorum:
Ille pater mundi, hic habitator inops.
Neu
temnas modico lector pro corpore librum:
Corpore praemodico mel tibi portat apis. [19]
Rhabanus
Maurus also described the art of rhetoric in his encyclopaedic work. Martianus
Capella wrote a boob about rhetoric which was used in school. During 9th
and 10th century only a
few developements were made on rhetoric. 9th century was often
considered as a time of descendence of rhetoric. During late 10th
and 11th century the seven liberal arts became more and more popular.
New aspects of rhetoric came from the literature of Arabia and Asia
in the 11th century. Propaedeutic methodes werde the seven liberal
arts for philosophy, theology, Roman and canonic right and medicine. During
the Middle Ages the ars dictaminis, the ars notaria, the ars praedicandi became
popular. Notaries used these arts for making documents by imitating formulars
and exemples for analphabetic clients and provate and public letters.
The
Rhetoric of Aristoteles, the pseudo-aristotelic
Rhetorica ad Alexandrum, De
elocutione of Demetrius and the speech Ad
Demonicum of Pseudo-Ikocrates were translated from the Greek original
into Latin. Basic of the rhetoric of the Middle Ages is the Roman and Greek
literature. During the middel ages in Europe there are only the textes of
acient authors which are copied by Christian monks. Cicero was the first Roman
who transferred the rhetoric terminology of Greek language into Latin words.
The terminology of rhetoric in Europe is transferred into national languages since ending of ancient culture and improves
since 15th century. During Middle Ages only the incomplete text
of Quintilians Institutio oratoria
was available. Petrarch wrote a letter to the dead Quintilian. In Germany Martin Luthers speeches were influenced
by Quintilians education. The vis bonus
idea including all branches of knowledge, literary theory and criticism was
still powerfull.
During Renaissance in Europe there are a lot of authors which are translating ancient textes or writimg textes which are inspired by ancient literature. In the Renaissance the ancient Greek textes were invented by scholars. In European Barock times the local literature in its countries developes new instructive literature of the art of rhetoric. In Renaissance the influence of rhetoric is more important than in the middle ages. Rhetoric increases in all parts of contenpory culture next to scholastic philosopy, theology, laws, medicine and mathematics. The imitation of arts and sciences in ancient times was one of the main ideas in this time. Main genres were genus deliberalivum and genus iudicale. But also in poetic literature rhetoric theory influences the European literature and humanistic scholarship of rhetoric, grammar, poetry and philosophy. In 14th century Quintilians Institutio oratoria was known to contempory scholars. The works of Aristoteles were known and translated by scholars of rhetoric. In 15th century also Greek literature was translated from codices of the middle ages. There were collections of fictive speeches and letters. Collections of examples for the beginnings (exordia) of a speech and for adresses of letters (salutationes) were used for public and private letters. Style is the main topic of literature that was used by poetry and rhetoric. Aristoteles was the basic ancient author for both kinds of art. In 15th century rhetoric was a methode to inprove style, imitation and literature criticism. The influence of the ancient rhetoric is also part of the contempory national languages imitating the ancient styles. Dante and Bocaccio are influenced by ancient and Christian literature. The humanistic scholarship is influenced by contempory rhetoric.
During
Reformation rhetoric is useful for religious and political discourses. In
Renaissance rhetorical books a written by famous scholars. Erasmus of Rotterdam
writes the Dialogus cui Titulus Ciceronianus
and De conscribendis epistolis. Melanchthon
writes Elementa rhetorices with
a theory of the genos didaskalikon
for preaching. Rudolf Agricolas Inventio dialectica is basis for an early scientific systeme that
was used during Barock. A new ideal of barock science is the polyhistoricus. The emblematic art uses
pictures and textes for a persuasion between two media. During the 17th
century there is a change in the theory and use of arts. One the one hand
we find exspecially in the secons part of the century the classic sholarship
of ancient literature. On the other hand there is the European Romantic culture
which uses a criticism to keep distance to the ancient literature. The ideas
of original genius put a stress on the opposition of this culture to the ancient
literature. During Barock in Germany the reformation of language was influenced
by ancient rhetoric literature. Theoretical Literature in German languages
is influenced by the ars poetica
and ars rhetorica in Latin writings. In England
Alexander Pope introduces criticism as a methode to analyse literature
in 17th century. Rhetoric
was connotated with a negative meaning. Only a few universities continued
in teaching rhetoric themes. Rhetoric themes becames part in other disciplines
like aesthetic, ancient classical scholarship and philosophy.
The
Englightenment´s rhetoricians believed that rhetorical invention is not new
knowledge (discovery) but heurisitic to improve and shape knowledge. Criticism
was an often used methode in combination with rhetoric. As exemplified in
the popular classical textbooks of Donatus, grammar means not simply the study
of correct constructions but also the analysis of style. The study of grammar
thereby shaded over into the medieval study of rhetoric, which emphasized
style. In the end of 18th century in Europe the enlightening provokes
criticism which is a scientific methode. The rhetoric literature is now available
as well in traditional latin language and in contempory local language. Studies
in charcteristics of human nature have an influence on dramatic literature
theory of 18th century and the idea of enlightening. In 19th
century rhetorical literature is written
in local languages. The Sententiarum Quatuor Libri written by Petrus
Lombardus, the Archbishop of Paris were publicated in 1882. In 20th
century in Europe there is as well rhetoric literarure as well as media like
radio, television and internet for rhetoric themes. As ancient works were
Rhetorica ad Herennium and Ciceros De inventione used during Renaissance. In 20th century rhetoric became
a part in new medias. Rhetoric took part in literature criticism.
[20]
Practic rhetoric influences all over the world politic
public relation works, advertisement, journalism and information systeme.
New media and hyper media informations have rhetorical aims.
Multi media concepts use a mixture of media for resulting rhetorical
effects. In the use of hypertextual links rhetoric is one of the efficient
methodes which are in combination with images a key to the text. Since the
reader can choose the links, rhetoric following the old genus laudativum is most wanted wo attract the reader. Invention,
arrangement, style, memory, and delivery in the context of HTML, with reference
to ancient texts, are still important parts for communikation with new media.
Following the five parts of a speech there are actions concerning hypertexts,
which are represention the partes rhetoricae.
A basic text can be changes into a hypertext by making typical hypertextual
processes:
basic
text ------------------------------------------------► hypertext
▲
inventio
recieving,
editing,
transfer
of data
▲
dispositio
deviding
and connecting of data
▲
elocutio
stilistic
constructions of data,
images
▲
memoria
making
links,
making paths
▲
actio
construction
data,
sending
or copy data,
editing
Today
there are courses and hand books for buisiness letters as well as exemples
for love letters, letters for congratulation or recommendation. Ghostwriting
is one of the popular featunres of rhetoric writing. The practical works in
rhetoric accord to the historical tradition of rhetoric without atheoretical
background. The structure if these different kinds of literasry genres still
bases on the interest of the orator to introduce his speech y the acceptation
of the audience. The performance of a speech – either in spoken or in written
words – is the result of the parts of its construction.
In
written and spoken language there are expressions which one can classify concerning
to their time of use. One part of these expressions is called archaism referring
to the Greek word archaios, old. Another part is called neologism following
the Greek word neos for new. Neologisms and archaisms are expansions of a
language concerning their lexicalic and semantic value. Classifications of
terms or expressions of this kind one can find in natural and technical languages.
In technical languages there are expressions of different states of a language.
The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a part of SGML. The aim of XML is
the possibility to recieve, send and edit SGML in the internet like HTML.
XML was designed for an easy implementation and collaboration with both SGML
and HTLM.
[21]
In artificial or technical languages there is also a syntax.
Abstracts for the decription of XML are:
|
1. Terminology 2. Documents 3. Signs 4. Syntactic
Structure 5. Signdata
and Markup 6. DATA-parts
7. Prolog and
Documenttyp- 8. Standalone-Document
declaration 9. Free spaces 10. Ends of lines 11. Identification of language 12 Logic structurs
13.
Start-Tags, End-Tags und free- Element-Tags 14. Elementtyp-declarations 15. Element-value 16. Attribut-declaration of types, prefiguration and values
|
17. Physical structures of sign- and entity-references, intern entities, extern entities, 18. Text-declarations 19. Analysed entities 20. Codification of signs 21. Entities and references through a) Nopt recognized b) Included c) included e) In literal included f) Giving Information g) Passed througt h) As PE included i) Construction of text of interne j) predefininated entities k) Notation-Declarations l) Document-entity 22) Notations
|
The
structures of texts and hypertexts are both
determinated by a certain treasure of words. But finally there is a reference
structure between both types of languages.
Hypertexts consisting
of Hyperlanguage
Hypercharacters
▼ relating to Hypersymbols
Texts consisting of Characters
images
Relation between text and hypertext
Structures
of text and hypertext are like a cell both related to each other. Texts and
hypertexts in the internet are structured in different ways. Surface of text
and hypertext is the WWW, Word Wide Web. Hypertexts have the function of realisation
of a text by a image copy in the internet.
WWW
Text Copy realised by hypertext
Hypertext Medium
of the original text
Text Original Text
Linear
Texts are the documents in the internet. So there are documents like email
or homepages as an unit of an document. Non-linear structures are realised
as a feature of hypertextuality by
a) the connection of documents
b) the connection of hypertext language with the document
c) the connection of different media and caracter typs
Literary
hypertext-literature
Non-literary
hypertext-literature
Hypertext
and new media changed rhetoric of scholarship by its new media. Search maschines
use technics for the analyses of texts. Until now there are just a few places
where documents put to as a place of documentation. Functions that change
the space of a mail are destruction, addition, mailing and copying of a message.
Emailing is so an offer in the internet which makes it possible to communicate
in the internet in the tradition of writing and sending ´real´ letters. The
basic structure for the message
is the written text inside of a text document file. The structures of hypertext
are determinated by tecnicalls realized data and their connection chosen by
the reader. The canon of rhetoric is in texts in hypertext sourraoundings
like emails in use for the construction of the text. By communication based
on email the use of letters refers to the use of written rhetoric.
[1]
Greco, Diane: Why Is Literary Theory Important for Hypertext? Program in the
History and Social Study of Science and Technology.
Http://65.107.211.207/ht/greco2.html.
[2] Cf. Verjans, S. Computer semiotics as a basis
for integrating different views in human-computer interaction. ESPRIT AMODEUS
Project, Document TM/WP10
Gurak, Laura. Evaluating the Use of
Metaphor in Software Interface Design. A Rhetorical Approach. Proceedings of
the International Professional Communication Conference (IPCC) October 30 -
November 1, 1991. Orlando Florida.
Aaron Marcus Human Communication.
Communications of the ACM, vol 36 no 4. (April 93)
Ehses H. Representing Macbeth: a case
study in visual rhetoric. In: Design Discourse ed V. Margolin, the university
Chicago Press London 187-199 vol n 187-197
Tyler, A.: Shaping belief: the role of
audience in visual communication Design Issues vol IX nb 1 1992. S. 21-32.
Lee, C. (1992): The rhetoric of an
on-line document retrieval on system documentation. ACM Tenth International
Conference on Document Retrieval Systems, pp. 25-45.
Dormann, C.: From animated icons to
animated help for multimedia applications in Proceedings of the East-West
International Conference on Multimedia, Hypermedia and Virtual Reality
(MHVR'94). Moscow, Russia. September 14-16, 1994.
Durand, J. (1970). Rhetoriue et image
publicitaire. Communications, 15, Paris: Editions du Seuil.
Bonsieppe, Gui (1966). Visual-verbal
rhetoric. Dot Zero, No. 2, 37-38.
Jamieson, G H. Communication and Persuasion. London: Croom Helm, 1985.
[3]
Http://bama.ua.edu/~bbennett/com100/origins/tsld014.htm.
[4]
Http://www.patriot.net/~lillard/cp/cic.orator.html.
[5]
Http://www.gmu.edu/departments/fld/CLASSICS/gellius6.html.
[6] Http://www.cas.usf.edu/english/walker/papers/rhetoric.html.
[7]
Http://www.faculty.washington.edu/dillon/rhethtml/rhethtml.html.
[8]
Http://www.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0100.html.
[9]
Lebrave, Jean-Louis: Hypertextes - Mémoires – Ecriture. In: Genesis, No.5.
Paris 1994. S. 9-24.
Lebrave, Jean-Louis: L'hypertexte et
l'avant-texte. In: Sentieri della creazione. S. 171-190.
Lachmann, Renate: Intertextualität. In:
Fischer Lexikon Literatur. Hrsg. von Ulfert Ricklefs. Bd. 2. Frankfurt am M.
1996. S. 794-809.
Landow, George P.: Hypertext. The
Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology, Baltimore und
London 1992.
[10]
Http://www.writing.uct.ac.za/user/writing1.htm.
[11]
Http://corax.cwrl.utexas.edu/cac/online/01/troffer/htrhet.html.
[12]
Http://www.roma.unisa.edu.au/07118/guidest.htm.
[13]
Burton, Gideon O.: The Rhetoric of a Rhetoric Website: Inquiry, Pedagogy, and
Scholarship.
Http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/00/burton-rev/burton-paper.html.
[14] Inventio in the parts of construction of
a speech ´ and argumentatio innerhalb
the partes oratoriae are for Quintilian parts of the topica: Cf. Quintilianus,
Marcus Fabius: Institutio oratoria.
Ausbildung des Redners. 12 Bücher. Ed. and transl. by Helmut Rahn. Bd. I u. II.
Darmstadt 1972 u. 1975. 5, 10, 20 und 5, 10, 103.
[15] Cf. for the
systematic order of the partes oratoriae
in ancient literature: Lausberg, Heinrich: Handbuch der literarischen Rhetorik.
Eine Grundlegung der Literaturwissenschaft. Stuttgart 31990. S.
148ff.
[16] Vol. 1. 1972. 2, 1,
4. S. 162.
Cf. auch: Bonell, Eduard: Lexicon Quintilianeum. Leipzig 1834. S. 190.
[17] Quintilian, Marcus
Fabius: Instititio oratoria. Ausbildung des Redners. Herausgegeben und
übersetzt von Helmut Rahn. Darmstadt 1972. Bd. 1. 2, 17, 21. S. 254-256.
[18]
Http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/don_ag20.html.
[19]
Http://www.gmu.edu/departments/fld/CLASSICS/alcuin.rhetorica.html.
[20]
Cf. for German rhetoric history and theory:
Buelow, George J.: Music, Rhetoric, and the Conception of the Affections. A
Selected Bibliography. In: Notes 30. 1973/74.
S. 250 ff.
Betts, J. C.: The Marriage of Music and
Rhetoric. Diss. Minnesota 1972.
Perelman, Chaim: Das Reich der Rhetorik.
Rhetorik und Argumentation. München 1980.
Kopperschmidt, J.: Quintilian ›De
Argumentis‹. Oder: Versuch einer argumentationstheoret. Rekonstruktion der
antiken R. In: Rhetorik. Volume 2. Darmstadt 1991. Edited by J. Kopperschmidt. S. 59-74.
Ueding, Gert; Steinbrink, Bernd: Grundriß der Rhetorik. Geschichte, Technik,
Methode. Stuttgart 1986.
Introduction into rhetoric by Ueding, G.:
Http://www.teachsam.de/deutsch/d_rhetorik/rhe_3_2.htm.
Lausberg, H: Elemente der literarischen
Rhetorik. Bd. 1 a 2. München 1960.
Mur phy, James J.: Medieval Rhetoric. A
Selected Bibliography. Toronto 1971.
Ueding, Gert (ed.): Historisches
Wörterbuch der Rhetorik. Bd. 1ff. Tübingen 1992ff.
[21]
Cf.: http://www.mintert.com/xml/trans/REC-xml-19980210-de.
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